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| Context and Causes | | This famous war perhaps brings to mind the ill-fated but heroic ‘Charge of the Light Brigade’ as romanticised in two films of the same name, made in 1936 and 1968. Or the unstinting work of Florence Nightingale, who almost single-handedly revolutionised military hospital care for injured soldiers. Yes, these were important aspects of this war, but generally the reality was of military incompetence, unnecessary deaths (through both disease and fighting), and needless suffering through supply shortages and poor communications. Furthermore, the lessons of previous wars had not been learnt, nor had military strategy kept pace with armament improvements. Indeed, the whole of the British logistical machinery had become inept.
The war was the only one Britain fought on the European mainland between the 1815 Napoleonic War and First World War of 1914-18. However, this doesn’t imply that Britain enjoyed a settled peace; instead it was more of a nervous stalemate between it and the other great powers of France, Austria and Russia. Their main preoccupation was the long-term dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish), which had once stretched from Persia (Iraq), Egypt and Syria in the east to Greece and the Balkans in the west. As it disintegrated the allied European powers saw an opportunity to extend their influence, whilst Russia similarly wished to expand her territory, this time southwards in order to acquire a trade route into the Mediterranean Sea.
Europe, in the nineteenth century, was a web of military and political alliances and therefore any minor problem could easy escalate, drawing in larger powers each defending their interests and allies. In this instance the question of whether French Catholics or Russian orthodox monks controlled the Palestinian holy sites was the catalyst and pretext for the war. | | | Initial Hostilities | | Strategically important to the whole region was Constantinople (Istanbul), the Turkish capital. Consequently, in July 1853, Russia mounted a pre-emptive strike towards Constantinople by entering her neighbouring Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia (Rumania) who, although independent, were still nominally under Turkish rule. Russia hoped to either pressurise Turkey into acquiescing the Palestinian sites to her control or, if this was not forthcoming, to continue the advance towards Constantinople. In October the Turks declared war on Russia, who retaliated by destroying a Turkish fleet of warships in the Black Sea on 30th November. Meanwhile the Russian land forces continued their advance southwards entering independent Bulgaria and capturing the key town of Silietria, near the Black Sea coast.
As a result of this escalation British and French agreements with Turkey were then triggered with the allies declaring war on Russia on 27th March 1854. Expeditionary forces from Britain (commanded by Lord Raglan) and France (initially commanded by General St. Arnaud) were sent in May to stop the Russian advance. Although there was much posturing on both sides, there was little fighting and after Austria threatened to enter the war Russia eventually withdrew back to her own frontiers in early August. This should have been the end of the conflict, but the allies decided to assault the Russian navel base at Sevastopol, partly in reprisal for the Russian attack on the Turkish fleet earlier, but also on geo-political grounds as a way of containing an increasing expansionist Russia.
Similar actions were undertaken in the Baltic to contain Russian aggression towards Scandinavia. A British fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir Charles Napier, blockaded the Baltic and threatened Kronstadt, near St Petersburg, but this was deemed too large an offensive with the available forces. Instead, the fleet were content to destroy the Russian fortress of Bomarsund on the Aland Islands, midway between Finland, Sweden and Russia.
Meanwhile, throughout the summer of 1854 prior to any major military engagement, allied surgeons fought another war. This one was against outbreaks of cholera and dysentery that killed 10,000 troops from the allies’ expeditionary forces stationed at Varna, near Silietria. | | | The River Alma Crossing | | | Eventually, on the 14th September 1854, an allied force consisting of 27,000 British, 30,000 French and 7,000 Turks landed on the Crimean peninsula at Kalamita Bay, and marched southwards to Sevastopol. By the 20th they had reached the River Alma where they faced their first engagement against a Russian defence consisting of 36,000 Russian infantry, 2,500 cavalry and over 100 big guns. The allies crossed the river under intense Russian fire, suffering great losses, but once across quickly scaled the steep cliff towards the Russian defences. The Russians had expected these defences would hold for at least three weeks, but in only a few hours were forced to retreat. What beat the Russians so easily was the modern British Minié rifle, accurate to 500 yards, whereas the Russians had expected hand to hand fighting. In all British losses amounted to nearly 2,000 men. | | | Beginning the Siege of Sevastopol | | From the 23rd September the allies recommenced their advance towards Sevastopol. However, instead of the expected quick assault on the fortress it was decided to lay siege and bombard Sevastopol into submission. This unfortunate decision would transform the entire campaign from a quick attack on an unprepared and dispirited enemy to one that would entail years of toil against a well-fortified foe, a severe winter, malnutrition and outbreaks of disease.
For their siege the allies needed a new headquarters and harbour to receive supplies and so captured the port of Balaklava, seven miles to the south of Sevastopol. It took three weeks of back-breaking toil constructing the fortifications, installing gun emplacements and building storerooms. This delay gave the Russians an opportunity to organise and strengthen their own defences, including positioning of over 100 guns from their scuttled Russian fleet. Finally, allied preparations were complete and on the 17th October British and French guns simultaneously opened fire on Sevastopol. However, the bombardment had little success, with only slight damage inflicted to the fortifications. Although the allies maintained frequent bombardments in the coming months they met with little success as each time the speed of the Russian re-building dismayed and frustrated them. | | | Attack on Balaklava Camp | | The allies’ problems increased when the British camp at Balaklava was attacked on 24th October by the Russian reserve army, held outside the allied cordon around Sevastopol. The camp was not only the most exposed but also inadequately defended by British and Turkish troops, whilst the remainder were on siege duties. However amongst these forces, commanded by Sir Colin Campbell, were the Light Cavalry, the pride of the British army. Initially the massed Russian forces, commanded by Prince Menschikoff, were repulsed by the Turks who, although greatly unnumbered, fought hard to buy the British time to prepare a defence. Eventually the Turks were overwhelmed and it seemed that Balaklava was now defenceless except for the famous British ‘thin, red line’ of history. It was to become a do or die defence, as Campbell told his men, ‘Remember there is no retreat from here. You must die where you stand.’
As the 3,000 troops of Russian cavalry approached, the Heavy Brigade charged. This together with accurate firing of British guns brought disorder to the Russian formation, which retreated quickly from both sword and gun. However, this early British success was soon reversed. As the Russians regrouped the British Light Cavalry were ordered to charge. Against overwhelming superiority of Russian troops and firepower the Light Cavalry attacked with only sword and pistol. This time poor judgement and misunderstood orders led to the famous ‘Charge of the Light Brigade.’ Of a total of 51 officers and over 600 men in the charge, more than 100 were killed, nearly 200 wounded with a further 50 taken prisoner, all over within twenty minutes including the advance, charge and retreat.
The Russian cavalry then started their own charges, but they, in turn, were repulsed each time by accurate firing from the Highlanders. Through stubborn British resistance the Russians failed to take Balaklava but nonetheless gained control of the Woronzoff road, the main supply route to Sevastopol. This would cause serious supply shortages later during the winter. | | | Battle of Inkerman | | On 5th November, Prince Menschikoff with new reinforcements, made another attempt to stop the siege before the onset of winter. This time it was at Inkerman, two miles from Sevastopol, near the allied siege camp and again he chose the more exposed British force with its limited rear defences. However, Menschikoff’s superiority of overwhelming troop numbers of 55,000 men against 15,000 allied troops was greatly reduced because of the thick fog that continued throughout the day. Menschikoff’s troop advantage was further diminished by the topography of the terrain that consisted of a maze of confusing ravines and gullies restricting the actual number of men in action at any time.
Due to the fog and the terrain the battle quickly became fragmented and disorganised. The battle was reduced to hand to hand combat with small groups of troops on both sides searching and engaging with the enemy, receiving few orders, nor knowing how the overall battle was progressing. The battle continued for eight hours, but eventually with the arrival of allied reinforcements the Russian troops retreated into the dark of the late afternoon. As one commentator observed, the battle had been won by ‘the courageous British soldier who had fought all day without direction or hint from superior authority, only the example of his officer who was left equally without guidance.’ In giving of their best the British lost 40 officers and nearly 600 men along with 1,800 wounded. | | | Final Assault on Sebastopol | | After this battle hostilities ceased for the long Russian winter of 1854/5, but the allied forces still suffered and died. Their distress was exacerbated by the loss of the Woronzoff Road, the only metalled road that could have efficiently carried the supplies to the camps. Eventually with no horses left to do the carrying it was left to the allied troops to transport everything they needed from port to camp. By the end of January 1855 there were barely 11,000 allied troops at the front line capable of fulfilling their duties. Indeed, some nights less than 300 British men guarded their siege camps. However, with the spring a new optimism returned, helped by seven miles of new railway rapidly laid between Balaklava and the allied siege camps that bought urgently needed medical supplies, new clothing, food and ammunition.
As the allied bombardments were clearly not achieving their aim it was decided to assault the fortress, but first it was necessary to weaken the Russian fortress by cutting off its supplies. These came via the Sea of Azov, through the strait at Kertch and then westwards across the Black Sea to Sevastopol. Kertch, although key to the Russian supply route, was only now belatedly attacked and captured easily in May 1855 with only one British fatality. From now on Sevastopol was isolated with no further supplies reaching her.
Finally, after seven months of siege and an intensified bombardment Sevastopol was starting to crumble. The initial phase in attempting an assault on Sebastopol was to capture its outer defences, the first of which was an area of workings known as the Quarries. On the 8th June 1855 allied forces attacked and with great bravery and heavy losses captured this strategically important place. For the Russians this was a terrible blow.
The next stage of the plan was for a simultaneous offensive, on the 18th June, with the French attacking the Malakoff Tower, which protected much of the Russian outer defences and the British to attack the Redan, another heavily armed fortification. However, for the attack on the Redan to succeed the Tower had first to be captured. Again a bombardment preceded the offensive, but this time the attack was a disaster. Through a woeful lack of communication between the allies, the French were unable to capture the Tower and quickly retreated whilst the British continued their assault fully exposed to terrible heavy fire with enormous losses with 100 officers and 1,500 other ranks killed.
Throughout the summer further bombardments continued the gradual destruction of Sevastopol. Then, on 8th September, after two days of particularly heavy shellings the allies again attacked the Malakoff Tower. This time the French were able to take the tower, but the allies were repulsed at the Redan and the Flagstaff fortifications. However, the next day a fresh assault was ordered, but during the night the Russians had evacuated Sevastopol completely.
Although this marked a major victory for the allies, it would be a further six months of minor operations, particularly in Kars, in eastern Turkey, before the war was finally brought to a successful conclusion. The campaign dragged on through another winter until Austria threatened to enter the war. This finally convinced the Russians to accept an armistice on the 30th March 1856. | | | Aftermath | | Between them, the allies both badly managed and co-ordinated the war and which was unnecessarily prolonged by some inept judgements. Consequently, the allied forces suffered great losses not only from the hostilities, but also from poor hygiene, disease, malnutrition and crude medical and hospital facilities. Throughout the whole campaign 500,000 Russians had died, the 100,000 French and 22,000 British, however, most of these fatalities were caused by disease rather than battle.
The war did have some positives outcomes. It heralded sweeping reforms in military training for commanding officers and greatly improved medical treatment of the wounded. In addition, acts of bravery by ordinary troops were recognised for the first time with the Victoria Cross being awarded ‘For Valour’ to all ranks, not solely officers.
The war was the beginning of a much greater geo-political realignment across Eastern Europe and the Middle East. It laid the foundations for 20th century power blocs and alliances, but with it were many unresolved problems which were the seeds of later conflicts that would engulf that century.
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