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Chinese Opium Wars 1839-42 and 56-60

These two wars were part of a number of trading wars between China and Western countries including France, USA and even Russia, all of whom were intent on gaining commercial privileges and rights over a mainly defenceless China. For British traders in particular, opium was central to a highly profitable and complex business, whereby they exported Chinese tea, silk and porcelain to Europe and paid for them with opium imported from India. With British exports rapidly increasing, consequently opium imports had similarly escalated to such an extent that by 1838 over 2,000 tons were being sold, along with a resulting rise in public addiction and loss of revenue for China. The Canton (Guangzhou) commissioner, Lin Tse-hsu, grew concerned about this practice and its effects on his citizens. After protracted but unsuccessful negotiations with British representatives, Lin Tse-hsu declared, on 24th March 1839, opium imports unlawful, confiscated supplies, blockaded factories and arrested some 350 foreigners, many of whom were British. Such harassment was totally unacceptable to the British and so began the 1st Opium War.

1st Opium War 1839-42

The British force, led by Rear Admiral George Elliot, consisting of a fleet of sixteen warships arrived at Hong Kong in June 1840 to compel the Chinese to accept the demands of re-instating opium imports and further trading privileges. No agreement was reached, so Canton was attacked in May 1841, which led to further peace negotiations. Again these were unsuccessful and so war resumed in August 1841, now under the command of Sir Henry Pottinger, with the British forces campaigning northward capturing the ports of Amoy (Xiamen), Ting-hai and Ning-po (Ningbo). By May 1842, after the winter lull in hostilities, the British force had sailed up the Yangtze River seizing the important cities of Shanghai and Wu-shung (Wuxi). Finally, on 29th August 1842, peace was restored with the Chinese signing the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing). The treaty’s main provisions included a large indemnity, granting of trading privileges over five ports and the ceding of Hong Kong to Britain.

2nd Opium War 1856-60 (also known as the ‘Arrow’ War)

On 8th October 1856 the British, seeking further opportunities to augment their trading privileges, found an excuse to renew hostilities over a minor incident in Canton. Chinese police had seized a Chinese-owned, but British registered schooner Arrow and arrested its twelve Chinese-crew on suspicion of smuggling, and in doing so the ship’s British flag had been lowered and torn. China had no jurisdiction over the vessel and so Harry Parkes, the British consul at Canton, demanded an apology and the release of the crew. The Chinese authorities released the crew but refused to apologise. Consequently, on 23rd October 1856, Sir John Bowring, governor of Hong Kong ordered the British fleet to capture the forts guarding Canton and bombard Canton itself. This led, not unexpectedly, to increased Cantonese hostility towards Europeans, which resulted in a riot taking place on 15th December 1856 with European commercial property and factories being set on fire. Bowring responded by requesting further military support in order to secure Canton.

Meanwhile, the riot brought about further British naval reprisals by seizing forty war-junks at Escape Creek on 27th May 1857 and burning a further seventy at Fatshan Creek on 1st June, both actions near Canton. Eventually British reinforcements, led by Lord Elgin, supplemented by French forces, commanded by Baron Gros, arrived in December 1857. The French had joined the British on the pretext of a murder of a French missionary in China’s interior. With the arrival of these reinforcements and the continuing intransigence of Yeh Ming-ch’en, Canton’s commissioner, Canton was again bombarded on 28th December and finally seized by the allies after three days of fighting for the loss of thirteen British troops and 83 wounded, with the French suffering two dead and thirty wounded. Yeh was eventually caught and deported to Calcutta, where he died in 1859.

This joint Anglo-French force then headed north along the coast towards Peking (Beijing). On 20th May 1858 they captured the Taku forts that guarded the Peiho River mouth, that led to Peking. The allies then progressed upriver unopposed to Tienstin (Tianjn) where, on 26th June, the Chinese after negotiating with Elgin and Gros signed the Treaty of Tienstin. The Treaty compelled the Chinese to sanction the legalisation of the opium trade, repatriations for the war’s expenses and the opening of a further ten ports to foreign commerce.

However in June 1859, the British and French ambassadors, Frederick Bruce (Elgin’s brother) and M. de Bourboulon, sent to Peking to ratify these treaties were repulsed by a blockade and gunfire at the newly strengthened Taku forts. The Chinese inflicted heavy casualties with four gunboats sunk, Kestrel, Cormorant, Lee and Plover with losses of 81 dead and 345 wounded. Consequently, hostilities were resumed with Elgin and Gros being sent back to China (albeit slowly, being a year later) to oversee 11,000 British and Indian troops, commanded by Lieutenant-General James Hope Grant, and 6,000 French led by General Charles Montauban. These forces, in August 1860, again recaptured the Taku forts with British losses this time amounting to 18 killed and over 200 casualties. The allies continued their advance towards Peking, eliminating further Chinese resistance at Chang-chia-wan (Qinhuangdao) on 18th September and Pal-le-chiako?? on the 21st, both with small British losses, and finally reaching Peking on the 22nd.

With the allies’ arrival, the Emperor went into exile and his Summer Palace burnt by the British, personally directed by the then captain (later to become general) Charles George Gordon, whose nickname ‘Chinese Gordon’ was based on this and other later exploits in China. Finally with the allies preparing batteries for a bombardment of Peking the city gates were opened to Elgin on the 13th October.

On 24th October the Emperor’s younger brother ratified the existing Tienstin treaties and agreed to the Conventions of Peking that wrung further concessions including increased repatriations, the legalisation of opium imports and ceded the Kowloon Peninsula to Britain. These inequitable treaties remained in force until 1943.